Abstract
d-α-Tocopheryl polyethene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) has long served as a safe, multifunctional excipient in oral drug delivery, where it acts as a solubiliser, emulsifier, absorption enhancer, and bioavailability promoter for poorly soluble compounds. Recent advances in parenteral formulation science have highlighted the value of TPGS in injectable emulsions, nanoemulsions, lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and long-acting depot systems. Its amphiphilic architecture, efflux-pump inhibition, membrane-modulating effects, ability to stabilise pharmaceutical actives, and potential synergies to increase their efficacy and safety have expanded its utility to complex parenteral modalities, including oncology therapeutics and mRNA delivery platforms. This review summarises the physicochemical properties underlying TPGS function, its evolving role in parenteral systems, case studies of approved and investigational products, and emerging opportunities in nanoparticle-mediated and nucleic acid delivery. Collectively, the evidence suggests TPGS’s high potential to enhance the safety and efficacy of the next-generation parenteral therapeutics.
Introduction
For over sixty years, d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) has been recognised as a safe and highly functional derivative of vitamin E. Its amphiphilic structure provides solubilisation, emulsification, membrane fluidisation, and permeability enhancement, contributing to improved oral bioavailability for poorly soluble APIs (1–3).
TPGS is incorporated in several commercial drug products, including VIEKIRA PAK®, fenofibrate capsules, and ZEPATIER®, and is frequently employed in early-stage research formulations due to its ability to improve dissolution, stability, and absorption (4).
In recent years, TPGS has gained significant attention in parenteral drug delivery (5). Its hydrophobic tocopherol moiety facilitates encapsulation of lipophilic drugs, while its PEG-succinate segment provides aqueous dispersibility and steric stabilisation. Additionally, TPGS inhibits the multidrug resistance-contributing P-glycoprotein (P-gp), modulates membrane permeability, and contributes to nanoparticle stability—properties desirable in oncology, nucleic acid delivery, and long-acting injectables (6–9) (see Table 1). This review evaluates the emerging value of TPGS as an excipient for injectable formulations, supported by case studies and preclinical evidence.
Use of TPGS in parenteral products
Due to its favourable functionality, TPGS has been an ingredient in several marketed and experimental parenteral products. It has also received increased attention in formulation and delivery systems relevant to parenteral applications.
Solfredoc® (Docetaxel Injectable Emulsion)
Solfredoc (Sayre Therapeutics) is a ready-to-use docetaxel emulsion (20mg/mL) designed to eliminate polysorbate 80 and ethanol, excipients associated with hypersensitivity reactions and toxicity. TPGS serves as a primary emulsifier, enabling an ethanol-free oil-in-water system that improves tolerability and simplifies administration.
It is currently marketed in India by Sayre Therapeutics for use in breast cancer, prostate cancer, gastric cancer, and head and neck cancer. This product demonstrates the feasibility of substituting TPGS for polysorbates in approved oncology products.
TOCOSOL® Paclitaxel Nano-emulsion
The TOCOSOL® platform (Sonus Pharmaceuticals) represented a major effort to develop a Cremophor EL–free and ethanol-free paclitaxel formulation (10). The nano-emulsion included α-tocopherol, TPGS, and Poloxamer 407, producing ~100-nm droplets with high drug loading (10mg/mL). Although Phase III clinical studies did not meet their endpoints, early studies validated TPGS as a robust emulsifier capable of stabilising potent cytotoxic agents for parenteral use.
Emerging applications across conventional and nucleic-acid nanoparticle delivery systems
TPGS has a well-established role in conventional nanoparticle-based parenteral formulations for small-molecule and anticancer therapeutics, where it functions as a stabiliser, permeation enhancer, and pharmacokinetic modulator through its amphiphilic structure and PEG-mediated steric effects. In polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, nanocapsules, and solid-lipid nanoparticles, these properties have been shown to improve colloidal stability, drug loading, and systemic exposure.
The formulation principles that govern the performance of conventional nanocarriers, namely protection of the payload from chemical and biological degradation, mitigation of aggregation, and optimisation of biodistribution, are directly applicable to nucleic acid–based therapeutics.
As a result, growing interest has focused on extending the use of TPGS from established small-molecule nanoparticle systems to emerging messenger RNA and RNA interference delivery platforms, where analogous stabilisation and stealth mechanisms may address key challenges in intracellular delivery and in vivo stability.
TPGS in conventional nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems
TPGS is widely used in polymeric nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanocapsules and other particle-based parenteral formulations due to its unique physicochemical attributes (11–15):
- Reduced interfacial tension, promoting nanoparticle uniformity
- Prevention of crystallisation of loaded lipophilic drugs
- Improved aqueous dispersibility through PEG-mediated steric stabilisation
- Enhanced drug loading facilitated by the tocopherol domain
- Inhibition of P-gp efflux at the cellular membrane
Representative studies
- TPGS-coated resveratrol liposomes: 5.7-fold increase in AUC and 6.7-fold extension of plasma half-life, with improved brain targeting (15).
- W/O/W nano-capsules: improved vinorelbine encapsulation, stability, and hemocompatibility (11).
- Solid-lipid nanoparticles: ~39-fold enhancement in anticancer activity versus free vinorelbine, outperforming poloxamer-based systems (14).
These findings confirm TPGS’s role as a multifunctional stabiliser, permeation enhancer, and performance booster in nanocarrier systems.
TPGS as a functional component of mRNA delivery systems
Messenger RNA (mRNA) has emerged as a powerful therapeutic modality, particularly in the development of vaccines and other parenteral products. Its appeal lies in its capacity to encode virtually any antigen and in the speed and scalability of its production via cell-free in vitro transcription, which circumvents the need for conventional cell-based manufacturing.
However, the clinical translation of mRNA vaccines critically depends on advanced delivery systems capable of protecting mRNA from degradation and facilitating efficient intracellular delivery. The physical and chemical properties of mRNA contribute to its inherent instability, with direct implications for formulation, delivery, efficacy, and safety. Hydrolytic cleavage represents a major pathway of chemical degradation, while oxidative damage mediated by reactive oxygen species has also been implicated.
For these reasons, nanoparticle-based delivery systems have been employed to facilitate effective mRNA delivery, including in mRNA-based Covid-19 vaccines (16, 17). Lipid nanoparticles protect mRNA from both chemical and enzymatic degradation and facilitate cytosolic delivery, where the mRNA is translated by ribosomes into the encoded protein.
Consequently, mRNA therapeutics require delivery platforms that ensure robust intracellular transport while minimising enzymatic and oxidative degradation (18). Incorporation of TPGS into nanoparticle and lipid nanoparticle (LNP) platforms is expected to confer PEG-mediated stealth properties, reducing opsonisation and reticuloendothelial clearance in a manner analogous to PEG-lipids used in LNPs for luciferase and therapeutic mRNA delivery.
These effects have been associated with prolonged plasma half-life, increased area under the concentration–time curve, reduced systemic clearance, improved biodistribution, enhanced colloidal stability, and mitigation of inflammatory responses (19). The antioxidant contribution, arising from residual tocopherol impurities in the mixture rather than TPGS itself, may further support mRNA performance by reducing reactive oxygen species, thereby limiting degradation into harmful byproducts and decreasing associated inflammation and toxicity.
In other applications, a novel biodegradable D-α-tocopheryl polyethene glycol 1000 succinate-b-poly (ε caprolactone-ran-glycolide) (TPGS-b-(PCL-ran-PGA)) nanoparticle (NP) was prepared as a delivery system for small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA) molecules targeting HIF-1α in nasopharyngeal carcinoma gene therapy. The results showed that the NPs could efficiently deliver siRNA into CNE-2 cells (20).
TPGS is an effective nanoparticle stabiliser assisting in the reduction of nanoparticle aggregation. Though TPGS is not an antioxidant, trace-free tocopherol impurities can scavenge reactive oxygen species and mitigate mRNA oxidative degradation.
TPGS-coated lipid nanoparticles are expected to reduce opsonisation and reticuloendothelial clearance through PEG-mediated stealth properties, analogous to PEG-lipids used in mRNA lipid nanoparticles. Consistent with this mechanism, TPGS-containing formulations have been associated with prolonged plasma half-life, increased area under the concentration–time curve (AUC), reduced systemic clearance, and improved biodistribution following intravenous administration (13).
The role of TPGS in overcoming major challenges in the development of parenteral therapeutics
Parenteral formulations must meet stringent requirements for sterility, solubility, physical and chemical stability, biocompatibility, and patient tolerability. APIs with low aqueous solubility, susceptibility to hydrolysis or oxidation, and poor physical stability pose a significant risk for precipitation, aggregation, or degradation during storage (21). Excipient-API interactions, container-closure compatibility, endotoxin control, and particulate minimisation are essential for patient safety (22, 23).
Particle size control is therefore critical, as larger particles are associated with increased risks of vascular irritation and embolic events. Parenteral formulations must accordingly maintain particle sizes sufficiently small to permit sterile filtration and minimise patient risk.
Stability of formulation
Long-term aqueous storage can pose both physical and chemical stability challenges in parenteral formulations. Physical instability may manifest as compromised emulsion stability, resulting in phase separation, particle aggregation and growth, or drug precipitation. In contrast, chemical instability arises from hydrolytic, oxidative, and other degradation pathways that structurally modify the drug substance and/or excipients.
Consequently, formulation composition is a critical determinant of overall stability. The functional properties of TPGS that support its use in parenteral products are illustrated in Table 2. With respect to excipient stability, the ester linkage in TPGS, connecting d-α-tocopherol to the succinate–polyethene glycol (PEG) moiety, remains largely stable under physiological conditions, with only limited hydrolysis observed under extreme pH conditions. These features demonstrate its suitability for a wide range of parenteral formulations.
Delivery/uptake (Formulation functionality and sterility considerations)
In nano-emulsions, lipid-carriers, and nanoparticle systems, formulators must balance drug loading, droplet size control, release kinetic profiles, and sterility considerations, especially when terminal sterilisation is not feasible. TPGS offers multiple functionalities that address these challenges, particularly its ability to stabilise emulsions, enhance solubility and loading, and form formulations acceptable for sterile filtration or terminal sterilisation. TPGS can successfully replace other functional ingredients in formulations due to its favourable properties, as illustrated in Table 3.
Metabolic products/toxicity
In addition to its functional utility, TPGS is supported by a robust safety knowledge base. A recent evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) confirmed its favourable toxicological profile. Following intravenous administration, TPGS distributes rapidly to highly perfused, reticuloendothelial system–rich organs and initially circulates in intact form before undergoing ester hydrolysis to polyethene glycol 1000 (PEG 1000), the principal detectable metabolite.
PEG 1000 reaches peak plasma concentrations within approximately ten minutes and is efficiently eliminated via urine and faeces, reducing the potential for tissue accumulation relative to intact TPGS. Systemic TPGS clearance therefore occurs primarily through tissue uptake followed by enzymatic conversion to PEG 1000 and subsequent renal and biliary elimination.
Consistent with this metabolic fate, toxicological studies in multiple animal species revealed no evidence of genotoxicity or treatment-related adverse effects at doses up to 1000mg/kg/day. Based on a margin-of-exposure approach, EFSA concluded that use of TPGS at proposed exposure levels poses no safety concern, supporting its suitability for food and pharmaceutical applications. (24)
Conclusion
TPGS is evolving from a traditional oral excipient into a sophisticated multifunctional component for advanced parenteral drug delivery. Its unique combination of solubilisation, steric stabilisation, P-gp inhibition, membrane interaction, and nanoparticle modulation enables formulators to address long-standing challenges in the delivery of hydrophobic drugs, cytotoxic compounds, and nucleic acids.
As the field moves toward increasingly complex injectable systems, including mRNA, lipid nanoparticles, nano-emulsions, and long-acting depots, TPGS is poised to play a transformative role in developing safe, stable, and high-performance parenteral therapeutics.
Authors’ Biographies
MICHALIS NICOLAOU, PhD
Dr Michalis Nicolaou is a scientific consultant, as well as president and CEO of Nicopharm Pharmaceutical Solutions. He also serves as an adjunct professor of Pharmaceutics at Western University College of Pharmacy in the Department of Pharmaceutics. He holds a PhD degree in Pharmaceutical Chemistry from the University of Kansas and a bachelor’s degree from the University of Michigan. With over 30 years of experience in the pharmaceutical industry, his expertise spans product development, quality, manufacturing, and regulatory affairs. He currently provides pharmaceutical consulting services with emphasis on product development and quality systems. Dr Nicolaou has been involved in numerous projects focused on the design and optimisation of vitamin E TPGS-based formulations.
ANDREAS M PAPAS, PhD
Dr Papas is the CEO and a member of the Board of Directors of Antares Health Products, Inc., and an adjunct professor in the College of Medicine at East Tennessee State University. A Fulbright Scholar, Dr Papas is a graduate of the University of Illinois and the author of the paperback The Vitamin E Factor, and the editor of the scientific book Antioxidant Status, Diet, Nutrition and Health. He also authored scientific papers and two nook chapters. Dr Papas was co-founder of YASOO Health and led the company as President and Chair of the Board of Directors. The company developed product concepts and managed successful commercialisation, including formulation and clinical evaluation supported by the National Institutes of Health and the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation.
Antares Health Products Inc. is a leading supplier of vitamin E TPGS, a powerful tool in the formulation of pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements, personal care, food and beverage, and animal nutrition and health products.
For additional information, please visit the Antares Health Products website at www.TPGS.com
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| Table 1. Potential Applications of TPGS in Parenteral Drug Delivery | ||
| Application | TPGS Function | Benefit |
| Nanoemulsions TPGS-W/O/W nanocapsules Example Vinorelbine | Emulsifier, droplet stabiliser, Stabilises double emulsions | Plasticiser, stabiliser, permeability enhancer |
| Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) Examples: Resveratrol, Vinorelbine | Efflux inhibition; solubiliser | Enhanced circulation; reduced hepatic clearance 5.7× AUC increase; 6.7× half-life extension; targeted brain delivery~39× higher anticancer potency vs free drug |
| Polymer nanoparticles | Steric stabilisation, ROS reduction, stabiliser, reduces opsonisation, supports circulation time | Better encapsulation and cell uptake |
| Injectable depots | Amphiphilic co-solvent | Modulates release kinetics |
| Cytotoxic formulations | Efflux inhibition; solubiliser | Improved delivery of MDR-associated drugs |
| mRNA therapeutics: Experimental mRNA LNPs, e.g., Luc mRNA, therapeutic mRNA | Efflux inhibition; solubiliser | Improved stability and tolerability, improved biodistribution, reduced ROS and inflammatory signalling |
| Table 2. Key Functional Properties of TPGS Relevant to Parenteral Formulation | ||
| Property | Mechanism | Impact on Formulation |
| Solubilisation | Micelle formation | Increased drug loading |
| Steric Stabilisation | PEG-Chain | Reduced Aggregation |
| Permeability Enhancement | P-gp inhibition | Improved Cell uptake |
| Antioxidant impurity | Free-Tocopherol | ROS reduction |
| Table 3. Functional Advantages of TPGS vs Common Parenteral Excipients | ||
| Excipient | Limitations | Advantages of TPGS |
| Polysorbate 80 | Hydrolysis, oxidation, hypersensitivity reactions | Ethanol-free emulsification; improved stability |
| Cremophor EL | Anaphylactic reactions; infusion reactions | Less immunogenic; improved tolerability |
| Poloxamer 188 | Lower solubilising efficiency | Higher solubilisation capacity; efflux inhibition |
| PEG only | Lacks hydrophobic core | Amphiphilic structure improves drug encapsulation |
